The general structure of this book is that of a textbook. In this sense it has a continuity between the chapters. Later chapters depend to a certain extent on earlier chapters. The level of the material is suitable for a junior or senior university student who has some familiarity with circuits utilizing electron devices. It is assumed that the reader has some knowledge of modern physics. The more complex physical concepts are discussed in some detail as the need arises. In order to explain the operation of semiconductor devices it is necessary to have some understanding of semiconductor materials and the motion of charges within these materials.
Although specific design problems for semiconductor devices cannot be worked out at the level oi this text, an examination of the type of problem involved, and approximate solutions thereof, will lend insight into the relationships between the internal processes of the device and its external electrical characteristics. Circuits will, whenever possible, be analyzed in terms of the physical properties of the device in order to assure that an understanding is obtained of just how the device interacts with the circuit currents and voltages.
It is an acceptable proposition that an engineer must have a deeper understanding of the operation of electron devices than just the ability to use specific devices in circuits. In order to assure versatility and immunity to obsolescence, he must understand not only what characteristics and parameters are, but why they are. He must understand the reasons for physical limitations on the devices with regard to voltage, current, and temperature. With this background he will be able4 to absorb new devices into his repertoire of useful devices easily and use them to their fullest capacity without overreaching their area of usefulness.
By including a discussion of the origin of the characteristics of the devices as well as applications of these characteristics in electronic circuits, the necessary connection between the physical structure and the circuit is brought out.
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The general order of the text can be outlined as follows. There is an introductory section on the physical principles which underlie the operating characteristics of semiconductor devices. Those principles, which are needed later to explain the devices under consideration, are studied. Chapters on the most widely used semiconductors follow. Contacts, junctions, and diodes receive a considerable amount of attention next, because a thorough understanding of diodes is an essential prerequisite to an understanding of transistors. Only the simple junction diodes are treated at this point. Other diodelike devices are taken up in Chapter 8. In Chapter 9, the simple triode transistor is then considered in some detail. The large-signal characteristics of the transistor are derived from physical considerations and discussed in Chapter 10. Operating limitations are discussed in terms of the characteristics derived.
Chapter 11 presents a rather detailed treatment of temperature stabilization of transistor circuits. This is a very important topic in circuit design because the characteristics of transistors are highly temperature-sensitive. Transistor parameters which can be used in small-signal analysis are derived in Chapter 12, using two approaches. The formal four-terminal-network concepts are used, and given substance by setting up equivalent circuits on the basis of physical processes. The equivalent circuits are then unified to a form which utilizes parameters most readily obtained from the manufacturer's data sheets on transistors.
There follows a series of chapters devoted to applications of transistors to specific types of circuits. These chapters make use of the concepts, characteristics, and equivalent circuits developed earlier. General methods of circuit analysis and design are presented and are given substance, in many cases, by detailed consideration of a specific design or analysis problem. Chapter 13 discusses some of the many facets of single- and multiple-stage-amplifier circuits. Special emphasis is placed on the application of feedback. Large-signal power amplification receives attention in Chapter 14, where some of the problems and advantages peculiar to transistors are discussed. Direct-current amplifiers receive brief attention in Chapter 15. Some of the fundamental difficulties which need to be overcome are mentioned. The important and useful topic of regulated power supplies is treated in some detail in Chapter 16. A few of the many possible small-signal sinusoidal oscillators are covered in Chapter 17.
High-frequency and switching effects are discussed in Chapter 18. Probably one of the biggest areas of application of transistors is for switching-type circuits. Modern digital computers, for example, are entirely solid-state. Therefore the most important switching properties of transistors are discussed in detail. Two chapters follow which describe typical switching circuits of the regenerative and nonreeenerative tvDe.
4 ific examples are used to show some of the modern circuit techniques. "Finally a brief postface concludes the text with a list of a few of the numerous solid-state devices which are now available to the electronic engineer and selected references to them. This list makes no attempt at completeness, but points the way to a wide and growing field of new and useful devices.
Several appendixes include a summary of formulas and symbols as well as useful device characteristics. The references which are gathered at the end of the text make no attempt at being complete but provide a guide to the vast literature now available on semiconductor devices. A rather extensive set of problems is given at the end of the text. These problems may serve as examples for class or self-study exercises and are selected to emphasize certain important points in the text.
Certainly, in a field which is expanding as rapidly as is the semiconductor-device field, one cannot hope to have the last word on all devices. It is hoped rather that this text will provide the background necessary so that new devices may be understood and used to good advantage with a minimum of time and effort.
Й. A. Greiner
Contents
Preface.....................vii
Chapter 1. The Structure of Atoms and Solids......... 1
1-1. Modern Concepts in Atomic Physics.......... 1
1-2. The Laws Which Describe Atoms.......... 3
1-3. The Schrodinger Equation............. 6
1-4. The Periodic Table............... 8
1-5. Crystalline Solids............... 11
1-6. The Energy-band Structure of Solids......... 16
Chapter 2. Electrical Conduction in Solids........... 22
2-1. Conductivity................ 22
2-2. The Allowed Motion of Electrons in the Energy Bands .... 24
2-3. Electron Conduction.............. 26
2-4. Hole Conduction............... 28
2-5. The Band Structure of Insulators.......... 29
2-6. The Band Structure of Semiconductors......... 31
2-7. The Band Structure of Metals........... 32
Chapter 3. Particle Physics............... 34
3-1. Particle Distribution Functions........... 34
3-2. The Fermi Function.............. 39
3-3. Combined Distribution Functions.......... 40
3-4. Diffusion of Particles.............. 43
3-5. Drift of Particles............... 46
. 3-6. Combined Drift and Diffusion...........49
Chapter 4. Practical Semiconductors............ 52
'. 4-1. Photons, Phonons, Electrons, and Holes.........52
~-'. 4-2. Defects and Impurities..............55
4-3. Intrinsic Semiconductors.............58
4-4. Extrinsic Semiconductors......... ... 65
Chapter Б. Semiconductor Preparation, Properties, and Measurements 73
5-1. Preparation of Germanium and Silicon . . . . . . . . . 73
5-2. Crystal Growing...............76
I 5-3. Measurement of Resistivity............77
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5-4. Measurement of Drift Mobility and Hall Mobility...... 80
5-5. Lifetime of Carriers............... 84
Chapter 6. Contacts................. 87
6-1. Introduction................. 87
6-2. Electric Potential............... 88
6-3. Metal-Metal Contacts.............. 91
6-4. Metal-Semiconductor Contacts........... 93
6-5. Ohmic Contacts................ 96
Chapter 7. Junctions................. 99
7-1. Methods of Preparing p-n Junctions.......... 99
7-2. The p-n Junction............... 103
7-3. Diode Resistance............... 108
7-4. Calculation of Ip and /„............. 109
7-5. The Space-charge Region............. 113
7-6. The Transition Capacitance............ 115
7-7. The Diffusion Capacitance............ 119
7-8. Temperature Dependence of Junction Characteristics..... 121
7-9. Reverse-bias Breakdown............. 123
• 7-10. The Tunnel Diode........' . . '..... 126
Chapter 8. Diodes.................. 130
8-1. Junction Diodes.........—--¦¦..... 139
8-2. Junction-diode Characteristics........... 133
8-3. Switching Effects in Junction Diodes......... 136
8-4. Conductivity-modulated Rectifiers.......... 137
8-5. Point-contact Diodes....... .....'. 138
8-6. Plate Rectifiers................ 141
Chapter 9. Transistors, the Basic Mechanism.......... 145
9-1. The Structure of the Triode Transistor......... 146
9-2. Transistor Action............... 149
9-3. The General Transistor Equations.......... 153
9-4. Current Relations in the Plane Triode......... 155
9-5. The Collector Efficiency............. 161
9-6. The Collector Saturation Current......... 161
9-7. Base-width Modulation............. 162
. Chapter 10. Practical Transistor Characteristics......... 164
10-1. Characteristics................ 164
10-2. Common-base Characteristics............ 167
10-3. Common-emitter Characteristics........... 171
10-4. Load Lines and Dynamic Characteristics........ 178
10-5. Power, Current, and Voltage Ratings......... 181
Chapter 11. Biasing and Stabilization............ 185
11-1. The Thermal-electrical Power Balance......... 185
11-2. Linear Stabilization............... 193
11-3. Linear Stabilization at Higher Powers......... 200
11-4. Nonlinear Stabilization.............. 204
Chapter 12. Transistor Parameters.............208
12-1. Active-network Parameters............ 209
12-2. A Physical Derivation of an Equivalent Circuit...... 213
12-3. The Hybrid-parameter Equivalent Circuit........ 219
12-4. The T-element Equivalent Circuit.......... 227
12-5. The Hybrid-x Equivalent Circuit........... 229
12-6. The Dependence of Parameters on Q Point and Temperature 232
Chapter 13. Small-signal Amplifiers............ 235
13-1. Single-stage Amplifiers.............. 236
13-2. Single-stage Amplifiers Using T elements........ 244
13-3. Modified Equivalent Circuits............ 245
13-4. Cascaded Stages..............' . 248
13-5. ЙС-coupled Stages................ 251
13-6. Amplifiers with Feedback..........' . . . 259
13-7. Common-collector and Compound Amplifiers....... 264
13-8. Multistage Feedback Amplifiers........... 269
Chapter 14. Power Amplifiers.............. 274
14-1. High-level Stages............... 274
14-2. Class A.................. 279
14-3. Class В.................. 286
14-4. Driver Stages................ 290
14-5. Compound Stages............... 293
14-6. Complementary Symmetry.....'....... 294
14-7. Example Power Amplifiers.............. 295
Chapter 16. Direct-current Amplifiers........ 300
15-1. The Drift Problem............... 300
15-2. Compensation Techniques............. 303
15-3. Difference Amplifiers.............. 306
15-4. Chopper-stabilized Systems............ 310
15-5. Large-signal D-C Amplifiers............ 312
Chapter 16. Power Supplies............... 315
16-1. Rectifier Arrangements.............. 315
16-2. Diode Voltage Regulators............. 317
16-3. Shunt Regulators............... 322
16-4. Series Regulators............... 324
16-5. Emitter-follower Regulators............ 326
16-6. Current Regulators............... 328
16-7. Current-limiting Circuits............. 329
Chapter 17. Sinusoidal Oscillators.............. 331
17-1. General Principles............... 331
17-2. Negative-resistance Oscillators........... 333
17-3. ДС Oscillators................ 335
17-4. LC Oscillators................ 338
fc|. 17-5. Crystal Oscillators............... 343
Chapter 18. High-frequency and Switching Transistors....... 344
18-1. Frequency-response Limits in Transistor Design ...... 345
18-2. High-frequency Transistors..........• • 348
18-3. High-frequency Parameters............ 352
18-4. Storage and Switching Effects........... 354
18-5. Steady-state Switching Properties.......... 362
Chapter 19. Switching-mode Circuits............ 367
19-1. Limiters, Clippers, and Clamps........... 367
19-2. Choppers.................. 371
19-3. Logic and Logic Circuits............. 373
19-4. High-speed Logic............... 381
19-5. Power-level Switches.........;•,.• • • 384
Chapter 20. Regenerative Switching-mode Circuits . . . . • • ¦ 386
20-1. Bistable Circuits............... 386
20-2. Astable and Monostable Circuits........... 392
20-3. Trigger Circuits................ 396
20-4. Counters and Shift Registers............ 399
20-5. Power Converters............... 4"3
Postf ace..................... 407
Appendix A-l. Units and Special Functions.......... 413
A-2. List of Symbols..............415
A-3. Matrixes................ 420
A-4. Parameter Interrelationships.......... 423
A-6. Gain Formulas.............. 428
A-6. Device Characteristics............ 430
References.....................• 457
Problems.................... . 469
Index...................... 489
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